-The Grandfather of Chicano Literature-
Rudolfo Anaya's New Mexico
Speaking Anaya: An ABCeDario
Anaya's rich prose reflects both his Chicano background and the New Mexico landscape that influences his work. Regional locations such as El Santuario de Chimayó, Mexican legends like La Llorona, and switching between English and Spanish in the same sentence are products of his upbringing and yet possibly very foreign to many of his readers outside the Land of Enchantment. This page seeks to provide meaning to these terms while also providing the reader with images of select terms that have come from Anaya's works.
Acequia - An acequia is a community-operated irrigation system used in New Mexico dating back to its time as a Spanish colony. It is an important part of New Mexico's agricultural system as these historically engineered canals carry snow runoff and river water to distant fields.
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Alburquerque - Anaya's preferred spelling of the city beginning in the late 1980s. According to Anaya, 1880, an Anglo stationmaster, who had difficulty pronouncing the first "R" reportedly removed it from the city's name, a move that symbolized the emasculation of the Mexican way of life and the encroaching Anglicization.
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Atole - A traditional hot-corn and masa-based Mexican beverage that also contains water, unrefined sugar cane (piloncillo), cinnamon, vanilla, and optional chocolate or fruit. It is served warm and typically around Christmas time and Day of the Dead.
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Aztlán - The ancestral homeland of the Aztecs. The narrative tells that the Aztecs left Aztlán after receiving a series of symbols (including total darkness) from the gods. They began their journey in the eleventh century AD and stopped in what is today Mexico City when they spotted an Eagle perched upon a cactus with a serpent in its mouth. They believed this to be an omen from Quetzalcoatl to build their new home there. The name Aztlán has since taken on an important symbolic meaning in the Chicano movement as a reclamation of their ancestral homeland which was annexed by the United States as a result of the Mexican-American War. Aztlán became a symbol for mestizo activists who believe they have a legal and primordial right to the land. Anaya refers to New Mexico as the Heart of Aztlán in order to maintain its unique cultural identity apart from mainstream American culture.
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Barelas - A historic Hispanic neighborhood just south of downtown Albuquerque that was established over 300 years ago. This area was originally settled because of its proximity to a natural ford in the Rio Grande river, and to the Camino Real, the colonial era trail that led more than 1,000 miles south to Mexico City. Since then the community has retained its strong individual Hispanic character. The Barelas neighborhood is home to the Barleas Coffee House, National Hispanic Cultural Center, the South Broadway Cultural Center and the Rio Grande Zoo. Anaya's family moved from the rural town of Santa Rosa to Barelas in the 1950s. The community has served as the setting for Heart of Aztlan and Alburquerque, among others.
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Barrio - Barrio refers to one's neighborhood, particularly in an urban seting. For Anaya, the barrio tends to be Barelas, but other historic barrios that he mentions are Martineztown, Los Duranes, and Los Padillas.
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Bizcochito - a traditional cookie with a relatively simple recipe that consists of four ingredients (anise, cinnamon, sugar, and butter or lard). Although biscochitos are are frequently eaten around holidays and fiestas (Christmas, the New Year, fiestas, and the Fourth of July) they are also consumed year round. Bizcochitos are an traditional dessert in New Mexican cuisine, dating back to the Spanish colonial era. Because the bizcochito is a traditional treat within the state, it has a special recognition and distinction as New Mexico’s official state cookie.
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Bosque - Bosque is Spanish for forest. In Anaya's works, the thick bosque typically offers a counter space to the llano and city. Bosques in New Mexico commonly contain Alamo trees. Albuquerque specifically offers a nature reserve called El Bosque. Stretching from the South Valley to the North Valley, El Bosque represents a natural refuge from the urban spaces that surround it.
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Bruja - A bruja is a witch. In Anaya's literature, a bruja typically practices black magic and has access to dark powers. Anaya frequently juxtaposes the bruja with the goodness of the curandera.
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Calabacitas - Spanish for squash, “calabacitas” in New Mexico typically refers to a traditional sautéed dish that combines green chile, yellow summer squash, and corn and can be thought of as comfort food.
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Camino Real - The Camino Real, or Royal Road, refers to a 1,600 mile trade route between Mexico City and San Juan Pueblo, New Mexico between 1598 and 1882. Part of the Camino Real is present-day Isleta Boulevard, a major thoroughfare in Albuquerque's South Valley neighborhood.
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Coyote - The coyote is a major mythological figure for most Native American tribes of the U.S. Southwest. Like real coyotes, mythological coyotes are usually notable for their crafty intelligence, stealth, and voracious appetite. However, Native American coyote characters vary widely from group to group. In some indigenous coyote narratives, Coyote is a revered culture hero who creates, teaches, and helps humans; in others, he is a sort of antihero who demonstrates the dangers of negative behaviors like greed, recklessness, and arrogance; in still others, he is a comic trickster character who relies on his cunning to outwit others. Anaya relies on the coyote in both his children's literature and adult fiction as a quintessential character of the region.
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It should be noted that coyote has additional meanings in the region, although these are not as prominent in Anaya's work. One refers to a derogatory ethnic classification that dates back to New Spain's casta system: it is a person who is the offspring of an indigenous woman and a Mestizo male.
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A coyote can also be someone who, for a fee, helps undocumented immigrants cross into the United States.
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Cuento - Spanish for story. Anaya has fashioned himself into a cuentista, or story-teller by calling upon legends, folklore, and narratives that have helped to shape Chicano identity formation.
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Curandera - A healer who uses folk medicine, usually relying on traditional knowledge of local herbs. Anaya frequently utilizies the curandera figure as someone who maintains a connection to the land, upholds traditional cultural values, and bestows wisdom upon younger (typically male) characters.
Literature of the Southwest Flyer. n.d. Oversize Folder 1 - B9. MSS 321 Rudolfo A. Anaya Papers. Center for Southwest Research, Albuquerque, NM. 31 May 2016.
Chicano - An identity within Mexican American populations in the United States. The term originally had a negative connotation until Mexican Americans appropriated it in the 1960s as part of a socio-political movement to assert their civil rights. Thus "Chicano" typically conjures notions of social activism. At the same time, "Chicano" also implies a sense of being "neither here nor there" because they are neither fully accepted as Mexican nor American. Finally, and of importance to Anaya, part of the Chicano experience is affirming one's indigenous heritage. Thus one finds within the Chicano movement a glorification of an indigenous past (such as the concept of Aztlan). Anaya, however, does not stop with the past; many of his literary texts put forth a strong indigenous consciousness in the present and main characters who are constantly negotiating their indigenous beliefs with those of the Western world.
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Chile - The most identifiable staple of New Mexican cuisine, the chile pepper was initially developed in Las Cruces in the late nineteenth century. It has since become the state vegetable, and is an important crop to New Mexico's economy and culture. In the late summer and fall, for instance, it is a shared experience among many families to attend chile roastings wherein green chiles are roasted in a cylindrical cage drum over flame. This has become the mst popular and commercial way to prepare the chile. The more traditional way is using an horno, or oven.
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In New Mexican cuisine, chile is offered as red or green. Green chiles are served roasted and peeled, whole or diced, and in various sauces. The most common uses for these diced chiles, or sauces, is in enchiladas and burritos as well as on burgers and french fries. They are also served whole as in chile rellenos.
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The red chile, the matured green chile, is frequently dried and ground to a powder. These dried or powdered peppers are then turned into a red chile sauce. Whereas green chile tends to have a sweet, spicy, and smoky taste, red chile tends to have a latent heat that evokes earthiness.
Serving both red and green chile sauces on a dish is referred to as "Christmas" style.
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Anaya uses chile as an identity marker for insiders and outsiders in New Mexican culture.
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Dukes - The Albuquerque Dukes were a Minor League Baseball team that first started as a Class D Rio Grande Association team in 1915. They eventually reached the status of a Triple A ball club from 1972-2000, predominantly affiliated with the Los angeles Dodgers. They eventually relocated to Portland after 2000 and were replaced by the Albuquerque Isotopes in 2003. The name "Dukes" is a reference to Francisco Fernandez de la Cueva, a Viceroy of New Spain from 1653-1660, and who held the distinguished title of the Duke of Albuquerque.
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Farolito - A farolito is a small paper lantern (commonly a candle set in some sand inside a paper bag) which is used at Christmas time, especially on Christmas Eve in New Mexico. The term farolito is commonly used in northern New Mexico whereas a luminaria is a popular term in the rest of the southwest. The distinction is important to northern New Mexico where the term "luminaria" is a type of bonfire.
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Typically the farolito is placed at the entrance to the home or in the middle of a courtyard. In New Mexico many traditional Spanish Colonial homes have a central courtyard with a large entrance gate; the farolito is placed at the gate. In traditional Pueblo villages, where the entrances to homes are rooftops, the farolito may be placed on a rooftop.
For some people the tradition includes lighting a new farolito each night of Las Posadas (nine nights in all), and rebuilding and lighting those from the previous nights. Thus, on the first night there is a single luminaria, and on the ninth night there are nine, all in a line leading to the gate.
Gabacho - A derogatory term among Mexican Americans to refer to white Americans. Anaya uses Gabacho in his earlier texts, but tends to employ Anglo and Gringo in later works.
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Golden Carp - A reoccuring theme in Anaya's works, the golden carp serves as a symbol for an alternative to the Catholic God, and it comes to represent a type of folk wisdom and power that stems from the Native American heritage of the region—a heritage that Antonio shares. Through the golden carp Anaya is able to highlight cultural syncretism that blends local Native American and Mexican American traditions with Catholic orthodoxy.
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Los Alamos National Labs - Emerging out of the Manhattan Project in the 1940s, Los Alamos National Labs has played a major role in National Security since designing the first atomic bomb. A mainstay in northern New Mexico, the labs have had a divisive effect on northern New Mexican culture. On the one hand, they are a major employer for the region. On the other hand, the Labs' scientists have been accused of discriminatory attitudes towards New Mexicans. Furthermore, much of their research is classifed and has dealt with nuclear testing. Anaya has drawn upon this secrecy, particularly in his short story "Devil Deer" and novel Jemez Spring, to comment on the environmental damage the testing is doing to the region.
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Llano - El llano refers to the plains of New Mexico. This is an open, largely treeless and agricultural part of the state that is central to Anaya's work (particularly the llano of eastern New Mexico). Anaya frequently juxtaposes it with urban spaces like Albuquerque.
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Llorona - A folkloric figure, La Llorona is the ghost of a woman who lost her children and cries while looking for them by the river, often causing misfortune to those who hear her. Her legend is told as a manner to frighten children so that they will behave well. La Llorona is one of the most reoccuring characters in Anaya's text, and he has made connections between her and La Malinche in colonial Mexico. Typically he uses La Llorona to refer to misunderstood female characters in his texts, but he also transforms her legend so that La Llorona becomes the siren of police cars entering Barelas and arresting and taking away young Chicano men. In another moment, La Llorona becomes the work whistle that calls the men back to the dangerous work in the railyards that has resulted in death and mutilation.
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Maíz - Spanish for corn, maíz is an important food that appears in much of Anaya's literature. As a crop that was a staple to nearly all pre-Columbian indigenous cultures, maiz offers a continuity between indigenous and Chicano cultures.
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Mal de ojo - Mal de ojo, or the evil eye, is a curse that is cast on a person who then suffers from misfortune, such as poor health. In Anaya's texts the evil eye can be cast in two ways: out of malevolent intent or out of excessive admiration.
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Malinche - La Malinche, also known as Malintzín and Doña Marina, was a Nahua woman who was gifted to Hernan Cortes upon his arrival to the Gulf Coast of present-day Tabasco, Mexico in 1519. During her childhood, her father, a Cacique of Paynala, died and her
mother remarried another Cacique, and bore a son. Now an inconvenient stepchild, the girl was sold or given to some people from Xicalango. This enabled her to have knowledge of both Nahuatl, the language of the Mexica/Aztecs, and Quiche, the language of the Maya. Cortes quickly became aware of Malinche's linguistic capabilities and she played a significant role in the conquest of the Aztecs by serving as an interpreter. During that time, she also became Cortes's advisor, confidant, and lover, and gave birth to his son, Martin, who for the sake of convenience, was considered the first mestizo. Cortes would eventually abandon her for his European wife, giving Anaya the possibility to rethink of Malinche as la llorona. Malinche later married Spanish hidalgo, Juan Jaramillo. Today the terms "malinche" and "malinchista" are used in Mexican Spanish to refer to a traitor, or a woman who prefers foreign men.
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Manzanilla - Chamomile. A medicinal herb used for curative properties. It is commonly boiled to serve as a tea.
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Matanza - A traditional New Mexican event that unites the community. Therein friends and neighbors help in the labor-intensive job of killing, preparing, cooking, and serving a large pig, goat or sheep. This celebration of food, family, and friends usually lasts at least an entire day and results in a large feast for all.
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Mestizo - Traditionally speaking, a Mestizo is someone whose heritage is both Spanish and Indigenous. The "first Mestizo" in Mexican national discourse is considered to be Martin Cortes, the child of Hernan Cortes and La Malinche. The Mestizo also plays a role in Chicano identity, as a group that seeks to identify its Native American and Mexican roots. In Alburquerque, Anaya posits the possibility of a new Mestizo: someone who is a mixture of Anglo American and Mexican American cultures.
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Nopal - The prickly pear of a cactus. This is an edible fruit, usually magenta in color.
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Novena - A series of prayers that take place over nine days in the Catholic church.
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Pachuca - A Pachuca is a Chicana and Mexican American subculture of females in the 1930s-1950s. She is often portrayed as an idealized beautiful Chicana woman, but in fact, Pachucas were quite transgressive. Many pachucas broke taboos of their time by wearing men's-style pants sometimes and appearing in public often with their pachuco boyfriends at a time when women were supposed to wear dresses and remain at home. Moreover, some Pachucas even dressed in female versions of zoot suits, thereby further subverting socially-prescribed fashion trends.In Anaya's works, Pachucas are described as having tattoos (particularly a small blue cross near their eye) as well as permanent makeup or eyebrows. They also tend to complain about the gendered expectations that their pachuco boyfriends place on them.
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Pachuco - Pachuco refers to a subculture of Chicanos and Mexican American youths in the 1930s-50s who were associated with zoot suits, street gangs, nightlife, and outlandish public conduct. Their identifiable fashion sense, which included ducktail hairstyles, tattoos, pocket chains, and the aforementioned zoot suits, Pachucos also employed a unique speech that consisted of creative phrases, code switching, and wordplay with English and Spanish words. Pachucos were often portrayed negatively as gangsters in mainstream U.S. media for supposed involvement in criminal activities such as vandalism and gang related misdemeanor. Pachucos are prevalent in Anaya's urban texts, particularly Heart of Aztlán, The Adventures of Juan Chicaspatas, and Alburquerque.
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Penitente - A member of a lay confraternity that exists in New Mexico and southern Colorado. These men are typically Spanish-American and devout Roman Catholics who carry an enigmatic folkloric quality in New Mexican literature. They congregate in buildings known as moradas, rather than churches, and sing religious songs known as alabados. They practice self-flagellation and reenact Christ's crucifixion on Good Friday. Their presence emerged in secluded communities that lacked permanent clergymen during New Mexico's colonial era.
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Piedra Mala - Legend has it that the serpent god that led the Aztecs south out of Aztlan had a tail made of fire. When he walked on earth though, the fire cooled and turned into rocks with magical powers that have never been collected by certain people to use for evil.
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Piñón - The piñón is one of the oldest wild-harvested nuts in New Mexico, and the pinon pine is New Mexico's state tree. The two-needle pinon is native to the United States and dates back at least 7,500 years….For millennia, its nuts were used by New Mexico’s Ancestral Puebloans and other historic tribes living in this region, and cracked nutshells are found at virtually all such archaeological sites. Piñón nuts contain the twenty amino acids that make up a complete protein, as well as more than 3,000 calories per pound, making the nut’s protein density comparable to that of steak. Of the nine amino acids essential to human growth, seven are concentrated in the piñón, which is also an excellent source of potassium. Piñón nuts can be eaten roasted or raw and today its uses vary from coffee to making a crust for baked trout.
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Posadas - Las Posadas are a nine day celebration held from December 16-24 and date back to the seventeenth century when present-day New Mexico was part of the Spanish empire. The tradition includes a reenactment of the journey of Mary and Joseph to the stable in Bethlehem throughout various churches in the state.
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Posole - A hot stew made by cooking large corn kernels that soaked in a solution of lye, lime or wood ash along with meat (generally pork in New Mexico) and chile to make a deceptively simple comfort food that is a staple at New Mexican gatherings, weddings and holiday parties.
​ MeCha Flyer. n.d. Oversize Folder 1 - B9. MSS 321 Rudolfo A. Anaya Papers. Center for Southwest Research, Albuquerque, NM. 31 May 2016.
Ristra - A string of chile pods you see hanging along fences, on patios and on portals all over New Mexico. In the Fall, you can buy ristras at farmer's markets and roadside stands. Ristras are sometimes used for decoration, and are said to bring good health and good luck. More often, they are hung up to dry for later cooking and eating.
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Santero - Santeros (Saint makers) paint or carve images of saints. The retablo is a painting on a flat wooden panel while bulto refers to a three-dimensional carving of a saint. In the 1700’s, the tradition of the santero began to emerge in the small villages of Northern New Mexico and Southern Colorado. The work of these early santeros is still present in churches throughout Northern New Mexico, providing inspiration for the sacred art of today.
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Santuario de Chimayó - Located in northern New Mexico, the Santuario de Chimayo is a supposed place of miracles.
Legend has it that the Santuario was built after a local friar performing penances saw a strange light burst from a hillside near the Santa Cruz River. Curious, the friar sought the source of the light, which was coming from the ground. Dropping to his knees and digging in the sandy soil with his bare hands, he uncovered a crucifix. Three times this crucifix was taken in procession to the neighboring village and three times it disappeared, only to be found again back in its hole in the hillside. The friar decided to build a chapel in this location. Prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, the land was reportedly venerated by indigenous groups for containing hot springs with curative properties. Because of these narratives, many people believe that the dirt surrounding the Santuario is capable of curing afflictions and thus thousands of people make the pilgrimmage there every year, especially during Holy Week. The Santuario fits in well with Anaya's use of magical realism in his literature.
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South Valley - The South Valley area has been occupied by Spanish and Mexican families for centuries. This rich fertile valley has traditionally been a farming community and it is still crisscrossed by acequias linked to the Rio Grande. Some of the adobe homes in the area are 400 years old, and many of the area’s families have been living and farming here for generations.
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Tata - Grandfather or grandmother
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Tortilla - The tortilla is a flat disc-shaped food made out of flour r corn. A staple in Mexican and Mesoamerican cuisine. For Anaya it is a comfort food for the Chicano characters in his works. It both nurtures them at home and alienates them in mainstream society. Ultimately, it connects them to their customs and traditions and offers a connection between Mexican, Mexican American, and indigenous cultures.
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Velorio - A wake, or ceremony held when somebody dies. Typically, a velorio can last several days and is held at the funeral house where people both mourn and celebrate the deceased through an alternating pattern of solemn prayer and shared stories.
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Zia - Zia refers to a Puebloan indigenous group that lives in the Jemez River Valley. The Zia people regard the Sun as a sacred symbol, which they draw as a red circle with three rays pointing in four directions. The four directions represent the four seasons, the four cardinal directions, the four periods of a day, the four stages of life, and the four central obligations of the Zia people: a strong body, a clear mind, a pure spirit, and a devotion to the welfare of others. This symbol is present on New Mexico's state flag and Anaya frequently uses "Zia" to refer to the sun.
Urrea, Luis. El Centro Cultural de la Raza Flyer. 3 Dec 1980. Oversize Folder 1 - B9. MSS 321 Rudolfo A. Anaya Papers. Center for Southwest Research, Albuquerque, NM. 31 May 2016.